SkyPirl Blockchain
  • SkyPirl (Pirl)
    • Docs.Pirl.io
    • About SkyPirl (Pirl)
    • Mission
    • Create SkyPirl 2.0 wallet
    • Restore wallet with secret 12 phrase
    • How to be a Nominator
    • SkyPirl coin specifications
    • Run a validator
    • How to unbound fund
    • How payout works
    • How to vote for Council
    • How to set identity
    • SLASHES
    • Refund of slashed
    • COIN SPECIFICATION
    • Governance and Treasury
    • Telemetry
    • List of wallet addresses not working
    • Spending from the treasury and Burn
    • Mint coins and transfer coins to the treasury
      • Treasury2
    • Burn 2
    • Source Code
    • List of wallets holding coins of burned wallets with PIRL balance at block 3939000
  • About SkyPirl (Pirl)
  • Mission
  • PIRLmeet
    • About Room-House.com
    • Free Trial
    • CINEMA
    • Microphone On-Off
    • Screen Sharing
      • Share—or don't share your audio
      • Video recording tutorial + camera + mp4 video download
    • Hands Up
    • Change the ringtone when giving a raise of hand
    • Stream MP4 videos
    • Stream mp4 video on Firefox browser
    • Cabinet Lock
      • Cabinet Lock account
      • Normal-Demo
      • How can I cabinet lock and keep strangers from entering the room?
      • How can I add people to the room when the room is locked?
    • Text chat
      • Room chat
      • Cabinetlock Chat
      • private chat per video
    • Connect Pirl wallet to Room-House
    • Change cover photo
    • Video title name
    • Setting up you own PIRLmeet
    • How to download videos on youtube, Facebook and convert to mp4 files
    • Use camera beautification App when livestream
    • Room-House can create meetings that last 24/7 and 365 days a year.
    • How does PIRLmeet secure products?
    • Get Pirl coin when playing videos on PIRLmeet
    • Picture
    • OBS Studio
      • Download
      • Screen sharing and front camera
      • Stream video from R-H to Youtube
      • Stream games
      • Stream Video and Record Video and download videos
      • Good quality video settings
      • Edit the frame and choose the recording frame
    • Source Code
  • Game
    • Room-House.com and games
    • Slot Machine
      • Connect the slot machine to the SkyPirl Light Wallet.
      • Connect Room-House.com to the slot machine
  • SkyPirl Light Wallet
  • PIRL Decentralized Charity Foundation (SkyPirl)
  • SkyPirl Community
  • Apps for Android and IOS (PWA)
    • Android
    • Iphone (IOS)
    • Computer-Windows-PC
  • Business Paradigm R-H
    • Use SkyPirl coin to pay in Room-House.com
  • Roadmap
  • Core Team
  • xTer . Technology
    • About xTER SafeContainer
    • xTer Ecosystem
    • xTer SkyPirl
    • xTer Room-House
      • How to Room-House
    • xTer Room-House Plus
      • How to xTer room-House plus
    • xTer TrueAD
    • xTer SmartFilter
  • White Paper
  • Blog
    • News
      • ------What is Web 1.0, 2.0, 3.0?------
      • The world's first decentralized audio chat room Room-House
      • What's so special about decentralized audio chat rooms?
      • Features that make Room-House.com decentralized chat rooms competitive with giants
      • Ever heard of Decentralized Charity Fund?
      • What is online meeting? 4 most effective online conferencing solutions
      • What is online meeting? Is it easy or difficult to organize?
      • What is the standard of a professional online meeting room?
      • History of the world's first online meeting software
      • Decentralized Application Room-House.com (Daap)
      • In what year was the internet born? And the birth of the project SkyPirl
      • Cooperation between Room-House and Russian State Social University
      • Building SkyPirl Decentralized Internet in Space
      • Data collection is a huge industry that operates in the dark
      • Free and easy decentralized internet for everyone to use
      • What is Pirl (PIRL) ? Community Based Project Pioneering in Introducing Masternode Technology
      • PirlGuard — Innovative Solution against 51% Attacks
      • ETC and PirlGuard Cybersecurity Plan
      • PirlChat messenger release
      • Overview of PirlChat 0.5.1–0.6 Beta Versions
      • Decentralized blockchain messengers
      • PirlChat messenger version 1.0.4 released
      • What is Pirl 2.0 and what changes will come to the Pirl network
      • The Pirl project announced the launch of its own exchange
      • PIRL’s Content Masternodes Are Almost Out: What You Need to Know
      • PIRL Masternodes and DApps Overview
      • SkyPirl (PIRL) Decentralized Charity Foundation
      • Thanks to PirlGuard, Callisto is protected against 51% attacks
      • What is SkyPirl(PIRL) project?
      • Here is the sci-fi story of the decentralized social network PIRL:
      • What is Callisto-Pirl.com project?
      • Here is the legend of the multi-planetary decentralized internet space station PIRL:
      • PIRL decentralized social network has the following key differences:
      • The SM feature of the decentralized social network PIRL seems to be an interesting secret.
      • SkyPirl(PIRL) is designed to attract investors with attractive features:
      • SkyPirl project does not sell ICO (Initial Coin Offering) or not raise funds for the following reaso
      • Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year! SkyPirl Callisto-Pirl.com
      • SkyPirl Project Merry Christmas Story:
      • Happy New Year! SkyPirl Callisto-Pirl.com
      • Here's the story of the SkyPirl Mars Exploration Project:
      • Multiplanetary Billionaire
      • Lost in space
      • The Last Space Train
      • The future of society: Polarization of rich and poor in the 4.0 revolution
      • Callisto-Pirl.com Civil War
      • Callisto-Pirl.com Civil War 2
      • Callisto-Pirl.com Civil War 3
      • Callisto-Pirl.com Civil War 4
      • Callisto-Pirl.com Civil War 5
      • Callisto-Pirl.com Civil War 6
      • Callisto-Pirl.com Civil War 7
      • Callisto-Pirl.com Civil War 8
      • Callisto-Pirl.com Civil War 9
      • Callisto-Pirl.com Civil War 10
      • Callisto-Pirl.com Civil War 11
      • Callisto-Pirl.com Civil War 12
      • Page
    • Technical
      • What is Bitcoin? How are Bitcoins created?
      • Export Your Private Key from Third-Party Wallets
      • What Is a Stablecoin?
      • What Is Wrapped Bitcoin?
      • 7 Ways to Generate Passive Income With Crypto
      • What is a decentralized social network?
      • How many Bitcoins can be mined in a day?
      • How many Bitcoins are there in the world?
      • What is a decentralized exchange? different from centralized floor?
      • What is Staking? 5 things to note when investing in Staking
      • What Are Blockchain Bridges?
      • Compare Hot Wallet and Cold Wallet, which one should you use?
      • What is NFT?
      • Building a Decentralized Internet in Space
      • Web 3.0 Paradox
      • Controversy about the future of the Internet
      • The metaverse virtual universe could revolutionize the Internet
      • 'Blockchain is the most influential technology since the Internet'
      • Web3 - Expectations for the Decentralized Internet
      • What is Dapp? The concept of Dapp and their classification
      • How Decentralized Web Browsers Give You Unsurpassed Privacy
      • Is Web 3.0 being hyped?
      • What are Nodes? Types of Nodes in Blockchain
      • Blockchain can be hacked or not?
      • What is Private Key and Public Key in Bitcoin?
      • What is a Nonce in Blockchain?
      • What is Decentralized Autonomous Cooperative (DAC)?
      • What is Genesis Block?
      • What is Web3? Explaining the Decentralized Internet of the Future
      • Z-Consensus , Callisto NetWork
      • DEX223 Explanation
      • CLOIPs
        • CLOIPs1
        • CLOIPs2
        • CLOIPs3
        • CLOIPs4
      • Skuld Hard Fork: Transforming Callisto Network with Dynamic Monetary Policy
      • Dex223: Decentralized exchange for ERC-223 & ERC-20 tokens!
      • What is SAVI Token?
    • Pi NetWork
      • Pi NetWork ( English )
        • Pi Network (PI) Mining Step by Step Guide
        • How to Create a Pi Wallet
        • How to KYC Pi Network 100% Success (2023)
        • Pi Network Security Circle: How to Add Users to Security Circle?
        • How to Migrate Your Mining Pi Coin to Mainnet in 8 Steps (See Video)
        • Why Pi Network can become the most active existence of mobile smart cryptocurrency?
        • FAQ? (FAQ)
      • Pi NetWork ( Tiếng Việt)
        • Pi NetWork là gì?
        • Cách KYC Pi Network 100% thành công (2023)
        • Vòng tròn bảo mật là gì?
        • Hướng dẫn tạo ví Pi Network
        • Cách Đào Pi Trên Điện Thoại
        • Cài đặt tên như thế nào là đúng trong Pi Network
        • Bạn cần xác nhận ngay VÍ PI THẬT để chuẩn bị chuyển SỐ PI XỊN vào ví pi sau khi hoàn thành KYC.
        • Hướng dẫn cách rút chuyển Pi về Ví Mainnet
        • Cách tăng tốc độ Đào Pi Network
        • Tại sao Pi Network có thể trở thành sự tồn tại tích cực nhất của tiền điện tử thông minh di động?
        • Hỏi đáp (FAQ)
    • Việt Nam
      • Pirl (PIRL) Là Gì ? Dự Án Dựa Trên Cộng Đồng Đi Tiên Phong Trong Việc Giới Thiệu Công Nghệ Masternod
      • Giới thiệu về SkyPirl (Pirl)
      • Sứ Mệnh Pirl2.0
      • Phần mềm Room-House.com là gì
      • Giới thiệu về Room-House.com
      • Room-House có thể tạo các cuộc họp kéo dài 24/7 và 365 ngày một năm.
      • Room-House.com bảo mật sản phẩm như thế nào?
      • Giới thiệu về xTER SafeContainer
      • Kế hoạch an ninh mạng của ETC và PirlGuard
      • Quỹ từ thiện phi tập trung Pirl
      • Phát hành trình nhắn tin PirlChat
      • Tổng quan về các phiên bản Beta của PirlChat 0.5.1–0.6
      • Trình nhắn tin chuỗi khối phi tập trung
      • PirlChat messenger phiên bản 1.0.4 được phát hành
      • Pirl 2.0 là gì và những thay đổi nào sẽ đến với mạng Pirl
      • Dự án Pirl đã công bố ra mắt sàn giao dịch của riêng mình
      • Masternode nội dung của PIRL sắp hết: Những điều bạn cần biết
      • Tổng quan về PIRL Masternodes và DApps
      • Xây dựng Internet phi tập trung SkyPirl trong không gian
      • Nhờ PirlGuard, Callisto được bảo vệ chống lại các cuộc tấn công 51%
    • Charity
      • Децентрализованный благотворительный фонд PIRL
      • PIRL 去中心化慈善基金会
      • PIRL 分散型慈善財団
      • Yayasan Amal Terdesentralisasi PIRL
      • PIRL विकेंद्रीकृत चैरिटी फाउंडेशन
      • Fundación Benéfica Descentralizada PIRL
      • Pirl المؤسسة الخيرية اللامركزية
      • קרן צדקה מבוזרת של PIRL
      • PIRL 분산형 자선 재단
      • PIRL Dezentrale Wohltätigkeitsstiftung
      • Ang mga desentralisadong charity fund Pirl
      • ມູນນິທິການກຸສົນ PIRL Decentralized
      • PIRL Decentralized caritas Foundation
      • มูลนิธิการกุศล Pirl กระจายอำนาจ
      • PIRL төвлөрсөн бус буяны сан
      • PIRL Weqfa Xêrxwazî ​​ya Nenavendî
      • Fundacja Dobroczynności Zdecentralizowanej PIRL
      • PIRL Gedesentraliseerde Liefdadigheidstigting
      • PIRL Adɔe Fapem a Wɔde Di Dwuma wɔ Decentralized
      • Fondacioni i Decentralizuar i Bamirësisë PIRL
      • PIRL ያልተማከለ የበጎ አድራጎት ድርጅት
      • PIRL ապակենտրոնացված բարեգործական հիմնադրամ
      • PIRL Mərkəzləşdirilməmiş Xeyriyyə Fondu
      • بنیاد خیریه غیرمتمرکز PIRL
      • Pirl বিকেন্দ্রীভূত দাতব্য তহবিল
      • PIRL Ongintzazko Fundazio Deszentralizatua
      • Дэцэнтралізаваны дабрачынны фонд PIRL
      • Pirl Decentralizovani dobrotvorni fondovi
      • Fundação de Caridade Descentralizada PIRL
      • Децентрализирана благотворителна фондация PIRL
      • Fundació Solidària Descentralitzada PIRL
      • Ang Pirl Decentralized Charity Fund
      • PIRL Fundazione di Carità Decentralizata
      • Decentralizirana dobrotvorna zaklada PIRL
      • Decentraliserede velgørenhedsfonde Pirl
      • PIRL detsentraliseeritud heategevusfond
      • PIRL Dɔmenyohabɔbɔ si Woɖo Ðe Dɔwɔƒewo
      • Stèidheachd Carthannais Sgaoilte PIRL
      • Fundación Benéfica Descentralizada PIRL
      • Ekitongole ky’obwannakyewa ekya PIRL Decentralized Charity Foundation
      • PIRL დეცენტრალიზებული საქველმოქმედო ფონდი
      • Fundación Caridad Descentralizada PIRL rehegua
      • PIRL વિકેન્દ્રિત ચેરિટી ફાઉન્ડેશન
      • PIRL Stichting Gedecentraliseerde Goede Doelen
      • Fondasyon Charite Desantralize PIRL
      • Gidauniyar Sadaka Mai Rarraba PIRL
      • PIRL Decentralizált Jótékonysági Alapítvány
      • Αποκεντρωμένο Φιλανθρωπικό Ίδρυμα PIRL
      • PIRL dreifð góðgerðarstofnun
      • PIRL Akwụsịghị Charity Foundation
      • Fondúireacht Carthanachta Díláraithe PIRL
      • PIRL Fondazione di beneficenza decentrata
      • PIRL ವಿಕೇಂದ್ರೀಕೃತ ಚಾರಿಟಿ ಫೌಂಡೇಶನ್
      • PIRL орталықтандырылмаған қайырымдылық қоры
      • PIRL មូលនិធិសប្បុរសធម៌វិមជ្ឈការ
      • PIRL Kwegereza abaturage ibikorwa byubugiraneza
      • PIRL Weqfa Xêrxwazî ​​ya Nenavendî
      • دامەزراوەی خێرخوازی لامەرکەزی PIRL
      • PIRL борбордон ажыратылган кайрымдуулук фонду
      • PIRL decentralizētais labdarības fonds
      • Fondation de Charité Décentralisée ya PIRL
      • PIRL decentralizuotas labdaros fondas
      • PIRL dezentraliséiert Charity Foundation
      • PIRL Децентрализирана добротворна фондација
      • PIRL Decentralized Charity Foundation
      • PIRL വികേന്ദ്രീകൃത ചാരിറ്റി ഫൗണ്ടേഷൻ
      • Fondazzjoni tal-Karità Deċentralizzata PIRL
      • PIRL Decentralized ပရဟိတဖောင်ဒေးရှင်း
      • Desentraliserte veldedige midler Pirl
      • PIRL विकेन्द्रीकृत चैरिटी फाउन्डेशन
      • PIRL Decentralized Charity Foundation
      • PIRL ବିକେନ୍ଦ୍ରୀକରଣ ଚାରିଟି ଫାଉଣ୍ଡେସନ୍ |
      • Faawundeeshinii Arjummaa Giddugaleessa Hin Qabne PIRL
      • PIRL غیر متمرکز خیریه بنسټ
      • Fondation caritative décentralisée PIRL
      • PIRL Hajautettu hyväntekeväisyyssäätiö
      • PIRL ਵਿਕੇਂਦਰੀਕ੍ਰਿਤ ਚੈਰਿਟੀ ਫਾਊਂਡੇਸ਼ਨ
      • PIRL Fundación Caridad Descentralizada nisqa
      • Fundația Descentralizată de Caritate PIRL
      • Decentralizované charitativní fondy Pirl
      • Децентрализована добротворна фондација Pirl
      • PIRL Aasaaska Samafalka ee Baahsan
      • Motheo wa Botho wo o Arotšwego wa PIRL
      • PIRL Decentralized Charity Foundation - Letlole la liphallelo
      • Yayasan Amal Desentralisasi PIRL
      • PIRL Wakfu wa Hisani uliogatuliwa
      • Фонди хайрияи ғайримарказии PIRL
      • PIRL பரவலாக்கப்பட்ட தொண்டு அறக்கட்டளை
      • PIRL వికేంద్రీకృత ఛారిటీ ఫౌండేషన్
      • PIRL Merkezi Olmayan Yardım Vakfı
      • Pirl Stiftelsen för decentraliserad välgörenhet
      • PIRL ዘይተማእከለ ግብረ ሰናይ ፋውንዴሽን
      • PIRL 去中心化慈善基金會
      • Децентралізований благодійний фонд PIRL
      • Pirl ڈی سینٹرلائزڈ چیریٹی فاؤنڈیشن
      • PIRL تارقاق خەير-ساخاۋەت فوندى
      • PIRL markazlashtirilmagan xayriya fondi
    • Khoa học, tâm linh và máy tính
      • SuDO Key the power of God
      • Dream, Parallel Universe
      • What is Constellation, Star?
      • If Bitcoin is considered a technology created by the "Creator", can opposing Bitcoin be considered o
      • Decentralized Universe
      • Earth's Development History: From Flat to Sphere
      • The Future of Religion and Technology
  • FAQ?
    • General
      • Getting Started
      • Claims
      • Redenomination of DOT
      • Grants
      • Polkadot Ambassador Programme
      • Research Pages
      • Community
      • Contributing
      • Contributors
      • Glossary
      • Adding accounts to an ENS domain
      • Ledger Application
      • How to Protect Yourself from Scams
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      • Thousand Validators Programme
      • Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
      • Miscellaneous
      • Programmes
        • Grants
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        • Substrate Builders Program
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        • Thousand Contributors Programme
    • Learn
      • Basics
        • Accounts
          • Polkadot Accounts
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          • Account Abstraction
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          • Multi-Signature Accounts
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          • Pure Proxy Accounts
        • Transactions
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        • Tokens and Assets
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        • NFTs
          • Introduction to NFTs
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        • Components
          • Polkadot Host
          • WebAssembly (Wasm)
          • Runtime Upgrades
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        • Staking
          • Introduction to Staking
          • Nomination Pools
      • Advanced
        • Availability and Validity
        • Cross-Consensus Message Format (XCM)
        • Sequential Phragmén Method
        • Proxy Accounts
        • Randomness
        • Simple Payouts
        • SPREE
        • WebAssembly (Wasm)
      • Cryptography
        • Cryptography Explainer
        • Keys
      • Paraobjects
        • Parachains
          • Common Good Parachains
          • Parachain Slots Auction
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          • Teleporting Assets
        • Parathreads
        • Bridges
      • Polkadot Comparisons
        • Polkadot and Kusama
        • Other Comparisons
        • Ethereum 2.0
        • Cosmos
      • Polkadot Lauch Phased
      • Video Tutorials
    • Build
      • Builder's Guides
      • Development Guide
        • Builders Starter's Guide
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        • Decentralized Storage Systems
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        • Substrate Connect
        • SS58 Registry
        • Opening HRMP Channels
      • Integration Guide
        • Polkadot Integration Guide
        • Polkadot Protocol Information
        • Integration Assets
        • Node Management
        • Node Interaction
        • Transaction Construction and Signing
      • Tool
      • Resources
    • Maintain
      • Network Maintainers
      • Parameters
      • Node Endpoints
      • Node And Dapps
        • Set up a Full Node
        • Networks
        • Set up Secure WebSocket for Remote Connections
        • Resolving Errors
      • Nominated Guides
        • Nominate
        • Unbonding and Rebonding
      • Validator Guides
        • How to run a Validator on Polkadot
        • Validator Payout Overview
        • Using systemd for a Validator Node
        • Secure Validator
        • How to use Polkadot Validator setup
        • Set Up a Validator with NGINX Reverse Proxy
        • How to Upgrade Your Validator
        • Monitor your node
        • How to Chill
        • How to Stop Validating
        • Validator Community Overview
      • Governance Guides
        • Participate in Democracy
        • Join the Council
        • Voting for Councillors
  • Agency policy
    • Information privacy policy
  • Rumhaus
    • О Room-House.com
    • Бесплатная пробная версия
    • CINEMA
    • Microphone On-Off
    • Демонстрация экрана
      • Поделитесь или не делитесь своим аудио
      • Учебное пособие по записи видео + камера + загрузка видео в формате mp4
    • Руки вверх
    • Изменить мелодию звонка при поднятии руки
    • Потоковое видео в формате MP4
    • Потоковое видео mp4 в браузере Firefox
    • Cabinet Lock
      • Cabinet Lock account
      • Как я могу «запереть шкаф» и не дать посторонним войти в комнату?
      • Как я могу добавить людей в комнату, когда комната заблокирована?
    • Подключить кошелек SkyPirl к Room-House
    • Изменить обложку
    • Название видео
    • Настройка собственного Room-House
    • Как скачать видео на ютуб, фейсбук и конвертировать в мп4 файлы
    • Используйте приложение для улучшения камеры во время прямой трансляции
    • Room-House может организовывать встречи, которые длятся 24/7 и 365 дней в году.
    • Как Room-House защищает продукты?
    • Получите монету Pirl при воспроизведении видео на Room-house
    • Source Code
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On this page
  • Polkadot and Ethereum 2.0
  • Model​
  • Architecture​
  • Consensus​
  • Staking Mechanics​
  • Shards​
  • Message Passing​
  • Governance​
  • Upgrades​
  • Conclusion​
  • References​
  1. FAQ?
  2. Learn
  3. Polkadot Comparisons

Ethereum 2.0

PreviousOther ComparisonsNextCosmos

Polkadot and Ethereum 2.0

Polkadot and Ethereum 2.0 are both sharded blockchain protocols. As such, they provide scalability by executing transactions in separate shards and provide a protocol to send messages between shards.

Model

The shards in Ethereum 2.0 all have the same state transition function (STF), as in the rules governing how the blockchain can change state with each block. This STF provides an interface for smart contract execution. Contracts exist on a single shard and can send asynchronous messages between shards.

Likewise, in Polkadot, each shard hosts core logic, the shards are executed in parallel, and Polkadot can send cross-shard asynchronous messages. However, each Polkadot shard (in Polkadot terminology, "") has a unique STF. Applications can exist either within a single shard or across shards by composing logic. Polkadot uses WebAssembly (Wasm) as a "meta-protocol". A shard's STF can be abstract as long as the validators on Polkadot can execute it within a Wasm environment. Polkadot will support smart contracts through parachains. To offer some perspective, on Ethereum, smart contracts can call each other synchronously in the same shard and asynchronously between shards. On Polkadot, smart contracts will be able to call each other synchronously in the same parachain and asynchronously across parachains.

Architecture

Ethereum 2.0

Ethereum 2.0's main chain is called the Beacon Chain. The primary load on the Beacon Chain is attestations, which are votes on the availability of shard data and Beacon Chain validity. Each shard in Ethereum 2 is simply a blockchain with the Ethereum Wasm (eWasm) interface.

Ethereum 2.0 launched phase 0 of a multi-phase rollout in December 2020, operating in parallel to the legacy Ethereum 1.0 chain:

  • Phase 0 provisioned the Beacon Chain, accepting deposits from validators and implementing proof-of-stake consensus, eventually among many shards.

  • Phase 1 launches 64 shards as simple chains, to test the Beacon Chain's finality. Each shard submits "crosslinks" to the Beacon Chain, which contains the information to finalize shard data.

  • Phase 1.5 integrates Eth 1 as a shard to finalize the proof-of-work chain's blocks.

  • Phase 2 implements the eWasm interface, phasing out proof-of-work, finally making the system usable to end-users. [1]

After the launch of the Beacon Chain in phase 0, the roadmap was altered to prioritize the transition of the legacy Ethereum 1.0 chain from Proof-of-Work to Ethereum 2.0's Proof-of-Stake consensus, preceding the rollout of shards on the network. [2]

The network will also have "side chains" to interact with chains that are not under the finality protocol of Ethereum 2.0.

Both Ethereum 2.0 and Polkadot use hybrid consensus models where block production and finality each have their own protocol. The finality protocols - Casper FFG for Ethereum 2.0 and GRANDPA for Polkadot - are both GHOST-based and can both finalize batches of blocks in one round. For block production, both protocols use slot-based protocols that randomly assign validators to a slot and provide a fork choice rule for unfinalized blocks - RandDAO/LMD for Ethereum 2.0 and BABE for Polkadot.

There are two main differences between Ethereum 2.0 and Polkadot consensus:

  1. Ethereum 2.0 finalizes batches of blocks according to periods of time called "epochs". The current plan is to have 32 blocks per epoch, and finalize them all in one round. With a predicted block time of 12 seconds, this means the expected time to finality is 6 minutes (12 minutes maximum). [3] Polkadot's finality protocol, GRANDPA, finalizes batches of blocks based on availability and validity checks that happen as the proposed chain grows. The time to finality varies with the number of checks that need to be performed (and invalidity reports cause the protocol to require extra checks). The expected time to finality is 12-60 seconds.

  2. Ethereum 2.0 requires a large number of validators per shard to provide strong validity guarantees. Polkadot can provide stronger guarantees with fewer validators per shard. Polkadot achieves this by making validators distribute an erasure coding to all validators in the system, such that anyone - not only the shard's validators - can reconstruct a parachain's block and test its validity. The random parachain-validator assignments and secondary checks performed by randomly selected validators make it impossible for the small set of validators on each parachain to collude.

Ethereum 2.0 is a proof-of-stake network that requires 32 ETH to stake for each validator instance. Validators run a primary Beacon Chain node and multiple validator clients - one for each 32 ETH. These validators get assigned to "committees", which are randomly selected groups to validate shards in the network. Ethereum 2.0 relies on having a large validator set to provide availability and validity guarantees: They need at least 111 validators per shard to run the network and 256 validators per shard to finalize all shards within one epoch. With 64 shards, that's 16_384 validators (given 256 validators per shard). [4][5]

Every shard in Ethereum 2.0 has the same STF. Each shard will submit "crosslinks" to the beacon chain and implement an eWasm execution environment. EWasm is a restricted subset of Wasm for contracts in Ethereum. The eWasm interface provides a set of methods available to contracts. There should be a similar set of development tools like Truffle and Ganache to develop for eWasm. [7]

Every shard in Polkadot has an abstract STF based on Wasm. Each shard can expose a custom interface, as long as the logic compiles to Wasm and the shard provides an "execute block" function to Polkadot validators. Polkadot has the Substrate development framework that allows full spectrum composability with a suite of modules that can be configured, composed, and extended to develop a chain's STF.

Shards in Ethereum 2.0 will have access to each other's state via their crosslinks and state proofs. In the model of Ethereum 2.0 with 64 shards, each one posts a crosslink in the Beacon Chain for every block, [4] meaning that shards could contain logic that executes based on some light client proof of a transaction on another shard. [8] Ethereum 2.0 has not released a specification for which nodes pass messages between shards.

Ethereum 2.0 governance is still unresolved. Ethereum currently uses off-chain governance procedures like GitHub discussions, All Core Devs calls, and Ethereum Magicians to make decisions about the protocol. [9]

Upgrades on Ethereum 2.0 will follow the normal hard-fork procedure, requiring validators to upgrade their nodes to implement protocol changes.

Using the Wasm meta-protocol, Polkadot can enact chain upgrades and successful proposals without a hard fork. Anything that is within the STF, the transaction queue, or off-chain workers can be upgraded without forking the chain.

Ethereum 2.0 and Polkadot both use a sharded model where shard chains ("shards" in Ethereum 2.0 and "parachains/parathreads" in Polkadot) are secured by a main chain by linking shard state in the blocks of the main chains. The two protocols differ in a few main areas. First, all shards in Ethereum 2.0 has the same STF, while Polkadot lets shards have an abstract STF. Second, governance processes in Ethereum 2.0 are planned to be off-chain and thus require coordination for a hard fork to enact governance decisions, while in Polkadot the decisions are on-chain and enacted autonomously. Third, the validator selection mechanisms are different because Polkadot can provide strong availability and validity guarantees with a smaller number of validators per shard.

Polkadot

Like Ethereum 2.0, Polkadot also has a main chain, called the Relay Chain, with several shards, called . Parachains are not restricted to a single interface like eWasm. Instead, they can define their own logic and interface, as long as they provide their STF to the Relay Chain validators so that they can execute it.

Polkadot, now live as a Relay Chain, only plans to launch the ability to validate up to 20 shards per block, gradually scaling up to 100 shards per block. Besides parachains, which are scheduled for execution every block, Polkadot also has , which are scheduled on a dynamic basis. This allows chains to share the sharded slots, much like multiple small airlines might share a gate at an airport.

In order to interact with chains that want to use their own finalization process (e.g. Bitcoin), Polkadot has that offer two-way compatibility.

Consensus

Staking Mechanics

Polkadot can provide strong finality and availability guarantees with much fewer validators. Polkadot uses to select validators from a smaller set, letting smaller holders nominate validators to run infrastructure while still claiming the rewards of the system, without running a node of their own. Polkadot plans to have 1_000 validators by the end of its first year of operation, and needs about ten validators for each parachain in the network.

Shards

Message Passing

Polkadot uses for parachains to send arbitrary messages to each other. Parachains open connections with each other and can send messages via their established channels. Given that collators will need to be full nodes of the Relay Chain as well, they will be connected and will be able to relay messages from parachain A to parachain B.. Messages do not pass through the Relay Chain, only proofs of post and channel operations (open, close, etc.) go into the Relay Chain. This enhances scalability by keeping data on the edges of the system.

Polkadot will add a protocol called that provides shared logic for cross-chain messages. Messages sent with SPREE carry additional guarantees about provenance and interpretation by the receiving chain.

Governance

Polkadot uses on-chain with a multicameral system. There are several avenues to issue proposals, e.g. from the on-chain Council, the Technical Committee, or from the public. All proposals ultimately pass through a public referendum, where the majority of tokens can always control the outcome. For low-turnout referenda, Polkadot uses adaptive quorum biasing to set the passing threshold. Referenda can cover a variety of topics, including fund allocation from an on-chain or modifying the underlying runtime code of the chain. Decisions get enacted on-chain and are binding and autonomous.

Upgrades

Conclusion

References

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parachain
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parachains
parathreads
bridge parachains
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Nominated Proof of Stake (NPoS)
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Cross-Consensus Message Passing Format (XCM)
SPREE
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governance
Treasury
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Ethereum 2.0 Phases
Ethereum 2.0 Merge
Ethereum 2 Block Time
Ethereum 2.0 Economics
Buterin, Eth2 shard chain simplification proposal
Messari Crypto Theses for 2020
eWasm Design
Sharding FAQ
Ethereum Governance Compendium